Terminologies in the ICN architecture

Terminologies in the ICN architecture The research on the Information-centric Networking initiated with the need to replace the current inefficient architecture to a promising model that could satisfy future network necessities [1]. The several projects on this research are differentiated in the operations of the key building blocks common to most projects [4]. Named Data Objects (NDOs)   Ã‚   Every content on the internet ranging from a web page, documents to media files is referred to as objects (NDOs) which are independent of location, storing and retrieval methods [4]. NDO and its name is the identity of the information on the internet which can be copied, requested and supplied. NDOs can also hold representative data about the information held by the object [4]. Naming Every NDO in ICN is to be assigned a unique name, and should also associate an integrity check with the information it holds to ensure reliability [4]. They are always location-independent and range from structured to flat and may be human interpretable or not [1].There are two different naming schemes hierarchical and flat namespaces. The hierarchical scheme has a structure to the name rooting to publisher prefix which may also be human-readable in some cases, enabling aggregation and scalability in routing mechanisms [4]. The flat namespaces use the hash of the content with the objects name for direct binding and embed public key and hash of the content for indirect binding [4]. The publisher field in flat names facilitates some level of route aggregation even if it is a non-hierarchical scheme [4]. The difference in the design trade-off affects routing and security mechanism [4]. Security This feature is correlated to the naming scheme adopted by the approach. Human-readable names require external trust agent for verification, while flat names support self-certification and validation [1]. Hierarchical naming is considered disadvantageous as it relies on public key infrastructure (PKI) [4]. Application Programming Interface (API) The ICN API is related to the operation of asking and getting the NDOs. There are different terms denoted for the operation that varies which will be discussed during respective approach. The source provides NDOs by publishing it to the network. The user requests the network to get the NDOs by subscribing to it. As per approach, the publish/subscribe operation may be synchronous or asynchronous, while some support location preferences [4]. Name Resolution, Routing, and Forwarding of the Content The name of NDOs is resolved by matching the information name to the source provider [1]. Resolution may be direct or indirect routes to the source/s. The operation is carried out by Name Resolution Service (NRS) in the routing infrastructure which stores pointers to the storage locations containing the object names [4]. The routing and forwarding of the objects are carried out in multiple steps which involve routing the request to the direct source or to the responsible NRS, translation of object name to source/s addresses if indirect, forwarding the request to the source and fulfilling the requested data back to the client [4]. The content routing may be coupled or de-coupled to the name resolution process. Coupled routing backtraces the request message path from the client and follows the same for delivering content. De-coupled routing uses different routes which can be generated by an independent routing module that provides a deliverable route to the source [1]. Caching Caching is application-independent and may be done at every node in the ICN infrastructure [4]. ICN supports on-path caching and off-path caching. On-path caching is caching the information along the path of NDO request message while Off-path caching is exploiting the information cached outside that path [1]. Off-path caching can be supported in both coupled and de-coupled routing mechanisms by routing systems or NRS respectively [1]. Mobility ICN facilitates content request process from user end as the request can be re-initiated after the handoff while providing mobility to the source is difficult in both coupled and de-coupled approach as it burdens the system with additional updates [1]. By caching and replicating content at multiples nodes closer to the mobile subscriber, the ICN infrastructure saves costs and time by bypassing possible congestion [2].

The Dutch Disease: Lessons from Norway

The Dutch Disease: Lessons from Norway Methodology This research has exploratory and its empirical object is the Dutch Disease healing process by other countries and through this information offer solutions for Nigeria. The methodology used is the case study and development analysis of the strategies used by other countries for the neutralization of the Dutch Disease. The study consists in a research approach method which is characterized by describing the case of an event and its implications. There are several types of case studies, but here is one exploratory case study in order to create a better conceptual definition and understanding of the cure of Dutch Disease. A literature search was performed from a review, using secondary data analysis. Studies on secondary sources involve bibliographic books and research already done on the subject under study. We selected some expert authors on the subject related to this step. We chose to work with significant authors on the subject for further study each of them. This analysis was organized into three chronological poles, as advocated by Bardin (2004): pre-analysis, material exploration and treatment of results, inference and interpretation. The first phase is characterized as the organizational phase and has three missions: the choice of documents to be submitted to analysis, the formulation of hypotheses and objectives and the development of indicators to substantiate the final interpretation. (Bardin, 2004 p.89). Finally, it was done the treatment and interpretation of the results obtained, in which the raw results are treated in order to be meaningful and valid. (Bardin, 2004, p.95). Thus found significant results that indicate how to neutralize the Dutch in Nigeria, as proposed for the work. Bardin (2004) points out, however, that the results obtained may have a different outcome to the goal initially presented, serving as a basis for further analysis arranged around new theoretical dimensions, or practiced thanks to different techniques. Finally, a conclusion is made about the Dutch Disease by the authors of this work, assessing all the information collected and selected. Norway Norway for decades was the poorest country of the Scandinavian region. However, in the recent economic history the country has been distinguished from the others presenting higher GDP growth compared to the rest of Europe and other developed countries such as United States, as presented in the graph below. This turn of events is conventionally attributed to Norway’s oil discovery in 1969 and subsequent extraction from 1971. In 2012, the petroleum sector represented more than 23 per cent of the country’s total value creation. The revenues from the petroleum sector constitute 30 percent of the state revenues. Today Norway is the 7th largest exporter of oil and the 3rd largest producer of gas in the world. With per capita GDP around $100,000, the Norwegian lifestyle has become such that the work week averages less than 33 hours, one of the lowest in the world, and while unemployment is low, there is large underemployment, made possible by benefits. GDP Growth Source: OECD (2015) However, it is insufficient in explaining the Norwegian economic growth pointing to oil revenues as it was previously explained in detail about the negative relationship between resource wealth and wealth caused by the economic illness of Dutch Disease. In fact, Norway have managed successfully its oil wealth and avoided falling into trap of natural curse. Larsen (2004) explains the change in the speed of growth in the decade after starting the exploration of oil was consistent with symptoms of Dutch Disease, however, continued growing over the two subsequent decades. This is an evidence of an escape from Resource Curse; thus, Norway did not experience retardation from mid-70s to mid-90s. Mehlum, Moene and Torvik (2006) pointed to Norway and other few countries as the only ones that were able to counteract the resource curse and the rent-seeking activities that are usually associated with it. Fosu (2012, pg. 45) argued that Norway escaped from Dutch Disease for several reasons: Norway has a history of natural resource management and integration with other industries through various linkages; The institutions already were developed to handle shocks to the economy such as large changes in terms of trades; The revenues from oil extraction were gradually separated from spending these rents by establishing a buffer fund that helped to stabilize the economy; According these rents from oil exportation became more significant, the buffer fund became larger and a new fiscal policy was implemented in 2001; This fund invested abroad and the returns are used to finance public expenditure with less deadweight loss. In 1996 the Norwegian government signed the Petroleum Act which constitutes the legal basis for the regulation of petroleum sector. In principle, it stated the rent from oil and gas belongs to the Norwegian people through their government. Gylfason (2001) describes that as the Norwegian government has high interest in controlling the oil sector, has decided to expropriate the oil and gas rent through taxes and fees. The State awards a small fee to domestic and foreign oil companies and receives roughly 40 percent of all produced through direct partnership with licensees, taxes and fees that corresponded to about 80 of the resource rent since 1980. Bresser-Pereira (2008) in its paper about a Ricardian approach of Dutch Disease describes that the severity of the natural curse varies according to the difference between the exchange rate equilibrium of the â€Å"market rate† and the â€Å"industrial rate†. The author points to the management of exchange rate through export tax on the commodities as the principal instrument for neutralization of Dutch Disease. Furthermore, the author argues that the resources from tax created to neutralize the natural curse should not be invested in the country but in international fund; therefore, the inflow of resources does not entail the revaluation of the local currency. Bresser-Pereira (2008) explains that Norway by imposing a tax on commodities adjusted the exchange rate equilibrium bringing it to the same level of tradable sector exchange rate equilibrium; thus, neutralizing the Dutch Disease. Moreover, the new â€Å"adjusted† exchange rate will be more beneficial than the previous one; thus, the country will have a structural current account surplus. Gylfason (2001) also describes the oil revenues are deposited in the Norwegian Petroleum Fund allowed to invest only in foreign securities for the benefit of the current and future Norwegians generations. Only the real rate return of these assets is transferred to the annual State budget, according to the fiscal guideline, the government deficit cannot exceed 4 percent of the assets. This is also important to shield the domestic economy from mismanagement, waste and overinvestment. Larsen (2004) defines this shield important because protects the economy from excessive demand and real appreciation when at full capacity, therefore, reduce loss of competitiveness. It is also beneficial when it is not at full capacity to allow some increases in aggregate demand. Fosu (2012) described the two functions of this fund. The first is to secure that oil windfall is not consumed, but converted into financial wealth. The second is to separate these revenues from the domestic spending that would not vary according to the oil price fluctuation (fiscal policy). The idea is to have a stable spending of the oil revenues without interfere in the industry sector structure. Additionally, it helps to shield the non-oil economy from shocks in the oil sector, which can put pressure on the exchange rate. Brahmbhatt, Canuto, and Vostroknutova (2010) discuss solutions for solving the natural resource issue. They argue that fiscal policy is the most important instrument because can make the increase in wealth permanent as the same time as it can constrain the spending effect to reduce volatility. Spending policies toward tradable sector (including imports) and general policies toward improving productivity of private firms help to reduce the negative impacts. Additionally, the government can encourage demand for imports to reduce demand pressure on the non-tradable sector while mitigates pressure on exchange rate appreciation and other adverse effects of natural resource windfall. In the case of Norway we can see in graph below the country has stimulated improvements in the manufacturing sector that has increased its participation in the economy by 5% of GDP while the energy sector has fallen about 10 percent and non-tradable sector remained stable. We can infer that has an effort from the government to push the manufacturing sector through investment in education, business regulations, or reducing trade barriers and bureaucracy. Brahmbhatt et al. (2010) describes that these reforms have the aim of promoting foreign direct investment and create conditions for learning by doing. The exchange rate is impacted by the size of the non-oil budget deficit, or spending revenues as illustrated by Aamodt (2014). In short term oil and gas companies purchases NOK and the Norges Bank’s exchange transactions have influence on the krone exchange rate. Conversely, in long term is the size of non-oil deficit that affects the Norway’s exchange rate. The revenues from oil do not have an impact by the fact that all government revenues from oil are accrued directly in foreign currency. But the government appreciates NOK when sells foreign currency to buy NOK in an amount equivalent to the budget deficit. In other words the breakdown of the government’s net cash flow from oil sector into foreign exchange revenues resulting from oil and gas companies has no influence on the krone exchange rate. With the Petroleum Fund the government isolates the effects of oil shocks and the oil price fluctuations on Norwegian economy because the entry of money into the economy is controlled and planned according to the need of the country. The State can make long term plan regarded to its domestic spending and; consequently; maintain the krone exchange rate and inflation stable even when the oil demand decreases. Other factors were important to neutralize the resource curse in Norway as stated by Gylfason (2001). The author explains that Norway has a centralized wage formation system to limit general wage increases at the magnitude of productivity increases in manufacturing sector. This is possible because the trade unions are large coalitions of employers and employees that are able to consider aggregate interests instead of special ones. Additionally, both parts use a neutral agency to compute productivity increases in the manufacturing sector, institutionalize this information as ceilings of general wage increases. Therefore; the country’s centralized wage negotiation system contributes to prevent fast appreciation of salaries in different sectors. Larsen (2004) argues that income coordination is important as the public sector limited wage increases to the productivity growth in the internationally competing industrial sector. In other words, this income coordination neutralized the impact of externality in the manufacturing sector avoiding high inequalities between tradable sector and resource sector. This is an important factor for the neutralization of Dutch Disease as reduces the labor shift between the two sectors. The graph below shows the wage evolution in Norway since 2002 in which we can see that gap between oil sector and the others never exceeded 2 per cent in this period. Institutional quality is considered by Mehlum et al. (2006) as an important element to reduce the effects of Dutch Disease as natural resource abundance stimulates the shift from production rent-seeking to the activities related to resource extraction. The authors associate the lack of natural curse with the existence of efficient, bureaucratic and transparent government. They presented a model in which shows the negative effect of resource abundance on growth vanishes in countries with high institutional quality like Norway. The quality of institutions is also related to the corruption perception index as a measure of rent-seeking. Gylfason (2001) found a relation between natural resources wealth and increase in corruption and; consequently; decrease the per capita growth. In Norway’s case, the author showed that since oil was discovered, the corruption has declined and country’s GDP growth was stable during the last three decades. The graphs below shows Norway keeps a high level of freedom of corruption placed between 10 less corrupted countries of the world while economic growth spurted since the oil descovery, especially after 2000. Finally, the public expenditure on education in Norway did not decrease after oil descovery. According to OECD, Norway has an incredible 100% literacy rate and is third country which invests more in education, what proves the government decisions are not oriented to favor natural resource extraction instead of other tradable goods production. Gylfason (2000, p. 4) in its studies about the correlation between natural resources, education and economic development showed that countries with natural resources wealth invest less in education and; consequently; has a poor economic performance. Nevertheless, the author mentions that Norway is one of the few exceptions: â€Å"The Norwegians show no signs of neglecting education, on the contrary, as the proportion of each cohort attending colleges and universities in Norway rose from 26 percent in 1980 to 62% in 1997†.

The Mosaic of American Culture, Its No Melting Pot Essay example -- S

The Mosaic of American Culture, It's No Melting Pot Culture is a behavior that consists of several critical elements, such as language, religion, race and ethnicity, clothing and politics. Culture is what one does in his/her daily life. In order to understand others, we must first keep in mind that every culture carries its own set of values and assumptions. Culture is an evolving, ever changing civilization, which includes several different groups people. For immigrants, America is a land of opportunity; for others it is just the best country in the world because of its economic success and/or its democratic political system. Americans usually value independence a lot, believe in equal opportunity, and have a direct communication style. In exploring the future American society, specifically regarding relationships among various communities of racial, ethnic, and others we are groping for an image. Some hold on to the notion of a melting pot, in which all groups would be assimilated into one homogeneous American amalgam. As I see it, the image of a mosaic, if properly understood, serves better than a melting pot. The immigrant population within the United States is not being blended together in one ?pot, but rather they are transforming American society into a truly multicultural mixture where every person acts as a piece in a Mosaic. When looked in closely you will see people with different cultures, but when looked from a far distance you will not see a specific cult...

Louis Riel: A Summary of Man :: Riel

Riel A Summary of Man Author: J. A. W. The Canadian hero Louis Riel shows mankind that life is fraught with controversies and battle with establishment. Moreover, establishment is the very ruin of Mankind. Riel's live was in more ways parallel to the human life cycle than one would guess. From the birth to the death of the notorious Riel, we can see how little control an individual really has over life. Louis Riel started out life living in the sticks far from 'civilization,' caring parents, who taught him the basics of life, raised him. His early home was simple, uncomplicated, his family farmed and hunted on the side to make a living. Like the hunter/gatherer people in prehistoric times, as these people lived mainly of the Wooly Mammoth1, so lived Riel's people of the giant buffalo herds, both people depending with their very life on these beasts. Just as the sudden extinction of the Wooly Mammoth complicated things for early mans' hunting habits, politics complicated Riel's outlook on life. Life got swiftly more complicated as Riel grew up. As the country came into the hands of "civilized people", it's people were forced into a lifestyle which was more complicated than the hunting and gathering lifestyle the Riels and other Metis families were used to. Establishment is the biggest complication in life, Riel fought this all his life, in the end it won. What advances did civilizati on make in this killing? It benefited them little other than the satisfaction of routing their enemy. Are people satisfied; was that the end? That remains to be proven; people are still fighting to gain amnesty for Riel. Life did not stay simple for people, problems started. As people established customs and started to stray from the hunter-gatherer society things got more complicated. Slave labor was one of the prominent drawbacks of people establishing new cultures. People needed slaves to build the huge monuments that they used to show their power and their allegiance to their Gods. The huge prehistoric stone calendar called Stonehenge2 may be the first example of slave work ever built. Canadians built up the West using methods that were essentially the same; they actualized it at the cost of the Metis' and Natives' lives and their livelihood. Riel's people, because they learned to depend the staples they could get in trade for hides and pemmican, were slaves of buffalo hunt and fur trade, thus slaves of the whites.

The Official Puerto Rican Language :: Language Spanish Culture Essays

The Official Puerto Rican Language "The attempt by conquerors to impose their language on the conquered is a recurrent historical theme" (Morris 162). In 1493 the Spanish conquistadors arrived on the island of Borinquen where, there was an attempt by the Spanish to impose their language on the native population of Taino Indians. The Tainos believed that the Spaniards were gods and so were willing to learn all that they could from them. The virtual annihilation of the Taino population in the short period after the Spanish arrival caused by the importation of illnesses the Tainos were not immune to as well as their horrid working conditions as slaves. After close to 400 years of rule on the island the Spanish language was adopted to be the official Puerto Rican language. Today the Spanish language is the number one identifying factor of Puerto Ricannness, meaning that when Puerto Ricans are asked what is Puerto Ricanness, the number one answer is language. As demonstrated by Nancy Morris in her book, Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity. Since 1898 Puerto Ricans have given the Spanish language enormous importance as part of their culture and history because of American colonization of the island. The United States attempt to Americanize the island by way of enforcing their language and history in public schools on the island has continually been rejected by Puerto Ricans. The Americans made no attempt to learn Spanish in order to understand Puerto Ricans because of their belief that Puerto Ricans were inferior. "In U.S. eyes the first problem Puerto Ricans faced was their Spanish blood. In the United States this heritage is called the Black Legend and is the basis of prejudice focused, not on the color of skin, but on cruelty of behavior" (Fernandez 13). Perhaps the competition between the Spain and the United States for global domination during the late 19th Century may have lead to a disliking of the Spanish culture. U.S. attempts to Americanize the island may have also been influenced by the competition between the countries. Competitive nature getting the best of the U.S. and making them so competitive they would try to convert an island to demonstrate the superiority of the English language and the American culture. In Ferrà ©s’ novel this unwillingness by the Americans to learn the Spanish language and try to improve conditions on the island are clearly depicted by several characters. For instance, The typical governor is described as:

Advertisement Is Manipulation

Advertising: Information or Manipulation? (Argumentative essay) [pic]Advertising is a way of getting a product or an idea to the general public to advertise the positive aspects of it. Advertising is a good way of  persuading  the people to purchase a product or believe in an idea that the advertisement presents. Advertising has many forms. They come in  propaganda or in mass media. (Television commercials) Traditional advertising is meant for  persuasion and is made to give off positive aspects (information) about a object or specifically a product to make them purchase or believe in the ideas that the  advertisement provides.This is not true present day. The present day advertisement evolved and now brainwashes the people to buy or believe in the things in the advertisement. Advertisement is made for persuasion but people have used this tool to actually control the thoughts of many people. For example, subliminal messages are contained in many different advertisements ava ilable today. Subliminal messages are very unethical. These messages are hidden in words or drawings to control the people. Subliminal messaging is one unethical way of advertising.Following ethics decides whether the ad is made for information or manipulation. If the ad contains unethical ways of persuasion then it is made for manipulation. The quote â€Å"if we follow ethics we face negative consequences† explains the ads that are available today. Many companies threw ethics out of the window. following ethics means less sales and less effectiveness. For the huge benefit they crave, they threw ethics and joined the dark side. Now advertisement are  solely  made to persuade people to pay more money than the actual cost of the product or an idea.These ads (most of them today) are mainly legal scams pasted in the window of your nearby super market. Is advertising the definitive way to make us informed in our daily decision making or is it just an exceptionally authoritativ e kind of mass deception that companies use to persuade their consumers and prospects into buying their services or products that they (buyers) do not need? In the global market, consumers have been exposed to ever ever-increasing amounts of advertising message.Consequently, the openings geared towards advertisement by firms have been on the rise to make sure that the buyers get the information. The paper presented here will carefully examine whether advertising is aimed at provision of information to the general   public and passing useful information to the customers or just to manipulate them and lure them into buying. Advertising can be used interchangeably with the word marketing. Talking of marketing draws our minds initially to money, services, goods and more importantly consumers.The role of advertising should be to help the society and the public at large through adequately correctly providing information concerning services and products that are produced. Advertising is a kind of communication that is untended to persuade people; readers, viewers and listeners to take some action. Another definition of advertisement as described by various researchers is; the non- personal communication of information concerning products, ideas or services in a normally persuasive way which is paid for by the sponsors and passed on through various mass media.On the other hand, the term manipulation has a meaning of giving malicious/ false information on a particular issue with an intention of achieving ones objectives. Manipulation basically makes use of lies to bring about benefits. There is a risk here though as if all the companies engage in spreading lies or false information about there products, the consumers will discover the truth and eventually the companies’ integrity in the eyes of the people will be lost, a fact that makes them to be extra smart in their manipulation undertakings.Advertising can be categorized into two throughout this research. O ne category is the innocent way of giving information to customers concerning a given product or service while facing them. There is a second category of that has a manipulative outcome on people. In all circumstances, people exposed to one or another kind of advertisement are driven in to purchasing products purchasing they may not really have needed. This is the image of manipulation in advertisement that makes consumers more commodity fetishists.

John Locke Biography Essay

John Locke was born on August 29, 1632, in Wrington, Somerset, England. He went to the University of Oxford, where he studied medicine. After college he became a philosopher; writing and speaking on topics, such as political philosophy. His father was a country lawyer and was in the military, he served as a captain during the English civil war. John Locke was one of the Whig party founders, this party pushed for constitutional monarchism. He also wrote two books that were published in England; Two Treaties of Government and his Letter Concerning. Toleration while he was in exile in Holland, due to a failed assassination attempt on King Charles II and his brother. Two Treatises of Government showed his revolutionary ideas concerning the natural rights of man and the social contract. Both of these concepts stirred waves in England, and impacted the intellectual underpinnings that formed the later American and French revolutions. John Locke’s liberal politicalviews were verydifferent and were unheardof at the timein Great Britain. He believed that it was wrong for agovernment to force its subjects to conform to a particular religion. Locke said that religious beliefs are a private concern and that they are not a proper subject for government interference. Locke also believed in natural rights which he usually referred to as, â€Å"life, liberty, andproperty†. Hestated that these rights a person may surrender or forfeitby attacking others, but no one can simply take them away. If the government begins to violate these rights by depriving its subjects of life, liberty, and property, then the people have a right to overthrow the governmentand establish a new one. Lockealso believedthat people can consent to create and obey only a limited or constitutional government. Locke’s views on practicing religion freely later influenced the creation of the American Declaration of Independence. John Locke 3 Early in his medical studies, Locke met the Earl of Shaftsbury. The two became friends and Shaftsbury soon persuaded Locke to move to London and become his personal physician. As Shaftsbury’s power grew, so did Locke’s responsibilities. He assisted in his business and political matters and eventually Locke became his secretary of presentations. Shaftsbury had a very heavy influence on Locke’s political career and many of his radical thoughts. Shaftsbury left an outlook on rule and government that stayed with Locke for the rest of his life. After reading about much of Locke’s life it is easy to see that he was very liberal and believed in the people having powers and freedoms that, at the time, were unheard of. John Locke’s philosophical political ideas and writings have greatly contributed to the freedoms we enjoy today in the Western part of the world. BIBLIOGRAPHY John Locke. (2014). The Biography. com website. Retrieved 01:12, Sep 21, 2014, fromhttp://www. biography. com/people/john-locke-9384544. Ball, Terence, and Richard Dagger. Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal. 8th ed. New York: Longman, 2010. Print. John Locke 4 Table Of Contents Page 1: Title Page 2: Table of Contents Page 3: Biographical Background and Political Views Page 4: Connections and Conclusion John Locke 5 Page 5: Bibliography.